What Happened to Chinggis Khans Empire at His Death?

The Mongols in Eastern Europe

Under Ögedei, the Mongol Empire conquered Eastern Europe. Diverse tactical errors and unexpected cultural and environmental factors stopped the Mongol forces from moving into Western Europe in 1241.

Learning Objectives

Recognize the European territories conquered by Ögedei and why the Mongols halted their expansion into Western Europe

Central Takeaways

Key Points

• Ögedei Khan, Genghis Khan 'due south tertiary son, ruled the Mongol Empire from 1227 CE-1241 CE.
• Under Ögedei, the Mongol Empire conquered Eastern Europe by invading Russia and Bulgaria; Poland, at the Battle of Legnica; and Hungary, at the Battle of Mohi.
• Changes in the terrain and resource, which express their cavalry abilities, along with the death of a charismatic leader Ögedei in 1241, brought these forces to a halt earlier they reached Western Europe.

Key Terms

• Rus': Early on Russian federation; encompassed modern-mean solar day Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Belarus, and the Baltic states.
• steppe: The grasslands of Eastern Europe and Asia. Similar to the North American prairie and the African savannah.

"Coronation of Ögedei": "Coronation Of Ögedei," 1229, by Rashid al-Din.

Expansion of the Mongol Empire Under Ögedei

Ögedei, Genghis Khan'south third son, took over from his father and ruled the Mongol Empire from 1227 CE-1241 CE. I of his most important contributions to the empire was his conquest of Eastern Europe. These conquests involved invasions of Russia, Hungary, Volga Bulgaria, Poland, Dalmatia, and Wallachia. Over the form of four years (1237–1241), the Mongols quickly overtook most of the major eastern European cities, merely sparing Novgorod and Pskov. As a result of the successful invasions, many of the conquered territories would become function of the Mongol Empire. This conquered region is sometimes  referred to as the Golden Horde.

The operations were masterminded by General Subutai and allowable by Batu Khan and Kadan, both grandsons of Genghis Khan. The Mongols had caused Chinese gunpowder, which they deployed in battle during the invasion of Europe to not bad success, in the form of bombs hurled via catapults. The Mongols have been credited for introducing gunpowder and associated weapons into Europe. They were also masters at cavalry invasions and siege warfare, which threatened many of the principalities the Mongols hoped to capture.

Invasion and Conquest of Russian Lands

Ögedei Khan ordered his nephew (and grandson of Genghis Khan) Batu Khan to conquer Russian federation in 1235. (The territory was and then called Rus' and encompassed modern-day Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Belarus, and the Baltic states. Territories and cities were ruled over by princely dynasties, which ofttimes meant these regions were fragmented politically.) The primary forcefulness arrived at Ryazan in December 1237. Ryazan refused to surrender, and the Mongols sacked it and then stormed through other Russian cities, including Vladimir Suzdal in the due north, and Pereyaslav and Chernihiv in the s. Other major Russian cities—such every bit Torzhok, and Kozelsk—were captured between 1238 and 1240. Some cities, such as Novgorod in the n, were not attacked due to the dense march and forest country surrounding it. However, the princes ruling Novgorod acted as revenue enhancement collectors for the Mongol Empire in the coming decades.

Later, the Mongols turned their attention to the steppe, crushing diverse tribes and sacking Crimea to the west. They returned to Russia in 1239 and sacked several more cities and finally took the southern Rus' uppercase of Kiev, leaving behind their trademark devastation of both the population and city structures. This terminal attack sealed the Rus' principalities' fate, forcing princes to abscond their regions or capitulate to Mongol tax and rule.

Invasion into Central Europe

The Battle of Legnica: A depiction of the Boxing of Legnica past Matthäus Merian the Elder, painted 1630.

The Mongols continued to invade Central Europe with three armies. 1 ground forces defeated the fragmented Poland at the Battle of Legnica in 1241. Ii days later the armies regrouped and crushed the Hungarian ground forces at the Boxing of Mohi, killing up to a quarter of the population and destroying as much as half of the habitable dwellings. This decisive victory was partially due to the fact that Hungary was unprepared for an invasion and did not having a standing army set to fight. It took a number of months for the Mongol army to subdue diverse power centers in Hungary. A major battle called the Mongol's Siege of Esztergom in the capital of Hungary forced people to flee and a new capital was moved to Budapest. Yet, the Mongols had  a difficult time capturing fortified cities throughout Hungarian territories, which kept a full takeover from occurring. The Hungarian king Bela Four fled to Republic of croatia during the initial attacks on his cities, and fortified structures throughout this territory helped proceed the king and the local populations prophylactic. Withal, Zagreb was sacked and destroyed in pursuit of the fugitive king and farther territorial gains.

While the Mongol armies were fighting in Republic of hungary and Republic of croatia, they also pushed their forces into Austria, Dalmatia, and Moravia. Where they found local resistance, they ruthlessly killed the population. Where the locale offered no resistance, they forced the men into servitude in the Mongol army. They also ransacked Moldavia and Wallachia, plundering nutrient stores and leaving the population in a precarious state.

Stop of the Mongol Advance

Although the Mongol forces were well-versed in cavalry and siege attacks, these two strategies also served as their weak points as they went farther west. Many people in Hungary, Croatia, and Dalmatia had food stores at the ready for the long siege battles of the Mongol armies. Fortified cities and boggy or mountainous terrain also slowed down the light cavalry of the Mongol forces and gave European cities an reward. Although politically fractured, European powers were uniting; even Hungarians who had survived the initial attack, or never engaged in battle, had begun a guerilla set on lead by survivors of the Hungarian royal family.

The Klis Fortress in Republic of croatia: This type of rocky, fortified city posed a serious claiming to Mongol forces who were frequently mounted on horses. This item metropolis defeated the Mongol regular army in 1242.

Along with all of these tactical challenges the charismatic Mongol leader, Ögedei, died in December 1241. His expiry forced the Mongol armies to halt their due west expansion, peculiarly in the confront of mounting difficulties, and hasten dorsum the thousands of miles to Karakorum, their capital in Mongolia, to elect his successor. Although the expansion did not extend into Western Europe, the Mongol forces retained power over many major Eastern European cities for many decades. Withal, later on Ögedei's death, power disputes plagued the Mongol Empire and eventually weakened their extensive hold on such vast territories.

Authoritative Reform in the Mongol Empire

Möngke was mostly a popular ruler of the Mongol Empire; he met debts, controlled spending, conducted a census, and protected civilians.

Learning Objectives

Choose the best summary of Möngke's achievements

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• After Ögedei's death, Genghis Khan 'south descendants Güyük and Batu Khan fought near who would rule until Batu Khan's expiry, at which betoken Genghis' grandson Möngke took control.
• Möngke was mostly a popular ruler. He generously met all Güyük'southward outstanding debts, an unprecedented movement.
• Möngke as well forbade extravagant spending, imposed taxes (which incited some rebellions), and punished the unauthorized plundering of civilians. He established the Department of Monetary Affairs and standardized a system of measurement.
• Möngke conducted a census of the Mongol Empire and its land.

Key Terms

• ingot: A block of steel, gold, or other metal oblong in shape and used for currency.
• Section of Monetary Affairs: Möngke established this body to command the issuance of newspaper money in lodge to eliminate the overissue of currency that had been a problem since Ögedei'south reign.

From Ögedei's death in 1241 CE until 1246 CE the Mongol Empire was ruled under the regency of Ögedei's widow, Töregene Khatun. She ready the stage for the rise of her son, Güyük, as Keen Khan, and he would take control in 1246. He and Ögedei'south nephew Batu Khan (both grandsons of Genghis Khan) fought bitterly for power; Güyük died in 1248 on the way to confront Batu.

Some other nephew of Ögedei'south (and so a tertiary grandson of Genghis Khan's), Möngke, then took the throne in 1251 with Batu's approval. In 1255, well into Möngke'southward reign, Batu had repaired his human relationship with the Great Khan and so finally felt secure enough to set invasions due west into Europe. Fortunately for the Europeans, yet, he died before his plans could be implemented.

The Mongol Empire Under Möngke

Möngke'south rule established some of the most consequent monetary and administrative policies since Genghis Khan. In the mercantile department he:

• Forbade extravagant spending and limited gifts to the princes.
• Made merchants subject to taxes.
• Prohibited the demanding of goods and services from civilian populations by merchants.
• Punished the unauthorized plundering of civilians by generals and princes (including his ain son).

In 1253, Möngke established the Department of Monetary Diplomacy to control the issuance of newspaper money. This new department contributed to ameliorate econimic stability including:

• Limiting the overissue of currency, which  had been a problem since Ögedei's reign.
• Standardizing a organisation of measurement based on the silvery ingot.
• Paying out all debts drawn by high-rank Mongol elites to of import foreign and local merchants.

Möngke recognized that if he did not come across his predecessor'due south, Güyük'due south, financial obligations, it would make merchants reluctant to keep business with the Mongols. Like many other rules around the world at this time, his promise was to take advantage of the budding commercial revolution in Europe and the Middle Eastward. Ata-Malik Juvaini, a 13th-century Persian historian, commented on the virtue of this move, saying, "And from what volume of history has it been read or heard…that a king paid the debt of some other male monarch? "

The Mongol Empire's assistants followed a trend that was occurring in the Western Europe, in which kings and emperors were finding efficient ways to manage their administrative and legals systems and fund crusades, conquests, and wars. From 1252–1259, Möngke conducted a census of the Mongol Empire including Islamic republic of iran, Afghanistan, Georgia, Armenia, Russia, Fundamental Asia and North China. The new census counted not only households only besides the number of men aged 15–60 and the number of fields, livestock, vineyards, and orchards.

Möngke also tried to create a fixed poll tax collected by regal agents, which could be forwarded to the needy units. He taxed the wealthiest people most severely. But the census and taxation sparked popular riots and resistance in the western districts and in the more independent regions under the Mongol umbrella. These rebellions were ultimately put downwards, and Möngke would continue to dominion.

Expansion and Khanates

At the decease of Genghis Khan in 1226, the empire was already large enough that i ruler could non oversee the administrative aspects of each region. Genghis realized this and created appanages, or khanates, for his sons, daughters, and grandsons to rule over in order to keep a consistent rule of constabulary. Möngke'south administrative policies extended to these regions during his reign, ofttimes causing local unrest due to Mongol occupation and taxation. Some khanates were more than closely linked to centralized Mongol policies than others, depending on their location, who oversaw them, and the amount of resistance in each region.

Painting of the Battle of Mohi in 1241: Möngke might accept been present at this boxing, which took place in the kingdom of Hungary, during ane of the many Mongol invasions and attacks that expanded the Mongol Empire.

It should also be noted that the vast religious and cultural traditions of these khanates, including Islam, Judaism, Taoism, Orthodoxy, and Buddhism, were frequently at odds with the khanate rulers and their demands. Some of the nearly essential khanates to exist under Möngke's administrative years included:

• The Gilded Horde, which contained the Rus' principalities and large chunks of modern-day Eastern Europe, including Ukraine, Belarus, and Romania. Many Russian princes capitulated with Mongol dominion and a relatively stable alliance existed in the 1250s in some principalities.
• Chagatai Khanate was a Turkic region which was ruled over by Chagatai, Odegei's second son, until 1242 at his decease. This region was clearly Islamic and functioned as an outlying region of the central Mongol government until 1259, when Möngke died.
• Ilkhanate was the major southwestern khanate of the Mongol Empire and encompassed parts of modernistic-day Iran, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Turkey and the heartland of Farsi culture. Möngke's brother, Hulagu, ruled over this region and his descendants continued to oversee this khanate into the 14th century.

Möngke's Death

Möngke died while conducting war in Prc on August 11, 1259. He was possibly a victim of cholera or dysentery, still in that location is no confirmed record of the cause of his expiry. His son Asutai conducted him back to Mongolia to be buried. The ruler'southward death sparked the four-year Toluid Civil State of war between his ii younger brothers, Kublai and Ariq Böke, and also spurred on the division of the Mongol Empire.

Kublai Khan

Kublai Khan came to ability in 1260. By 1271 he had renamed the Empire the Yuan Dynasty and conquered the Song dynasty and with it, all of China. However, Chinese forces ultimately overthrew the Mongols to form the Ming Dynasty.

Learning Objectives

Identify Kublai Khan's most meaning achievements

Central Takeaways

Key Points

• Möngke's death led to civil war (or Toluid Ceremonious War) betwixt his two younger brothers; ultimately, Kublai Khan emerged victorious and renamed the empire every bit the Yuan Dynasty in 1271.
• Kublai also renamed himself Emperor of Prc in order to win over millions of Chinese subjects.
• Ultimately, nether Kublai Khan, the Mongols were the first non-Chinese people to conquer all of People's republic of china. Notwithstanding, their conquests of Japan and Java failed.
• At the time of Kublai'south death, the Mongol Empire fractured into four split up empires; this fabricated it easy for the Han Chinese to overthrow them in 1368 and found the Ming Dynasty.

Kublai Khan: A portrait of a young Kublai Khan by Anige, a Nepali artist in Kublai's court.

Möngke's death in 1259 led to civil state of war (ofttimes referred to as the Toluid Ceremonious War) betwixt his two younger brothers, Kublai Khan and Ariq Böke. Kublai Khan emerged victorious and established the Yuan Dynasty in China in 1271, perhaps the Mongols' greatest triumph, though it would eventually exist overthrown in 1368 by the native Han Chinese, who would launch their own Ming Dynasty.

Establishment of the Yuan Dynasty

Afterwards Kublai took over control of the Chinese territories with the blessings of Möngke Khan around 1251, he sought to constitute a firmer hold on these vast regions. Rivaling dynasties loomed throughout the Chinese territories making for a contentious political groundwork to Kublai's rule. His greatest obstacle was the powerful Vocal dynasty in the south. He stabilized the northern regions by placing a earnest puppet leader in Korea named Wonjong in 1259.  Later the expiry of Möngke in that same yr, and the following civil state of war, Kublai was named the Great Khan and successor of Möngke. This new powerful position immune Kublai to oversee uprisings and wars between the western khanates and assist rulers (often family unit members) to oversee these regions. Nevertheless, his tenuous concord in the e occupied virtually of his resources.

In 1271, every bit he connected to consolidate his power over the vast and varying Chinese subjects and outlying regions, Kublai Khan renamed his khanate the Yuan Dynasty. His newly named dynasty appeared to be successful subsequently the fall of the major southern center Xiangyang in 1273 to Mongol forces after five years of struggle. The last piece of the puzzle for Kublai was the conquest of the Vocal Dynasty in southern Cathay. He finally garnered this sought-afterwards southern region in 1276 and the last Song emperor died in 1279 after years of costly battles. With this success, the Mongols became the start non-Chinese people to conquer all of the Chinese territories. Kublai moved his headquarters to Dadu, what later became the modernistic urban center of Beijing. His institution of a majuscule there was a controversial move to many Mongols who accused him of being too closely tied to Chinese culture. Yet, the Yuan Dynasty ofttimes functioned as an independent khanate from the residue of the western Mongol-dominated regions.

Yuan Dynasty circa 1292: The sheer scale of this khanate required extensive armed services support and often strained the Mongol treasury in order to keep populations under its influence.

Extended Invasions

Kublai Khan's costly invasions of many territories in the east did not go smoothly and some went on for many years, draining the Mongol treasury and utilizing precious resources. Although the invasions of Burma in 1277, 1283, and 1287 forced the population to eventually capitulate, they were never more than a vassal state. Similarly, the Yuan forces invaded Sakhalin Island off the coast of modern-day Russia multiple times between 1264 and 1308, and the various tribal groups besides eventually became a vassals later long years of turmoil. Southern Asian regions often agreed to Yuan dominion and tax only in the face of more than bloodshed and terror. Conversely, Mongol invasions of Nippon (1274 and 1280) and Java (1293) nether Kublai Khan ultimately failed and illustrated the costly effects of abiding invasive military tactics.

Yuan Dynasty Administration

Kublai Khan fabricated significant reforms to existing institutions under the Yuan Dynasty. He divided the Dynasty's territory into a central region and peripheral regions that were nether the command of various officials. He created an academy, offices, trade ports and canals, and sponsored arts and scientific discipline. Mongol records as well list 20,166 public schools created during his reign. He as well, along with engineers, invented the Muslim trebuchet (hui-hui pao), a counterweight-based weapon that was highly successful in battle.

He also connected to welcome merchandise and travel throughout his empire. Marco Polo, Marco Polo's begetter (an Italian merchant), and his male parent's trade partner traveled to Red china during this time. They met Kublai Khan and lived amongst his court to plant trade relations. Polo generally praised the wealth and extravagance of Khan and the Mongol Empire. Some historians also speculate that trade was so attainable between the empire and Europe, that it may take contributed to the flow of disease, particularly the black plague in the mid-1300s.

Trebuchet: The scheme of the "Muslim trebuchet" (hui-hui pao), invented during Kublai Khan's rule.

By the time of Kublai's expiry in 1294, the Mongol Empire had fractured into four separate empires, which were based on administrative zones Genghis had created. The iv empires were known as khanates, each pursuing its own separate interests and objectives: the Golden Horde Khanate in the northwest, the Chagatai Khanate in the west, the Ilkhanate in the southwest, and the Yuan Dynasty, based in modern-mean solar day Beijing. In 1304, the three western khanates briefly accustomed the rule of the Yuan Dynasty in name, but when the Dynasty was overthrown past the Han Chinese Ming Dynasty in 1368, and with increasing local unrest in the Aureate Horde, the Mongol Empire finally dissolved.

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-mongol-empire-after-genghis-khan/

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